Q.1 Which of the following best describes a gene regulatory network?
A collection of genes and the proteins they encode
A network of genes interacting through transcription factors
A set of metabolic reactions in a cell
A group of proteins that form the cytoskeleton
Explanation - Gene regulatory networks represent how genes influence each other's expression via transcription factors and other regulators.
Correct answer is: A network of genes interacting through transcription factors
Q.2 What does the Hill coefficient indicate in a dose-response curve?
The maximum response achievable
The concentration of ligand at half-maximum response
The cooperativity of ligand binding
The rate of signal transduction
Explanation - The Hill coefficient quantifies cooperativity; a value >1 indicates positive cooperativity, =1 indicates no cooperativity.
Correct answer is: The cooperativity of ligand binding
Q.3 Which of these tools is commonly used for aligning protein sequences?
BLAST
BWA
MUSCLE
TopHat
Explanation - MUSCLE performs multiple sequence alignments for proteins and is widely used for phylogenetic studies.
Correct answer is: MUSCLE
Q.4 In a Boolean network model, what does a node value of 1 represent?
Gene expression is inactive
Gene expression is active
Protein concentration is zero
Metabolite concentration is above threshold
Explanation - Boolean models encode on/off states; 1 typically denotes expression (active), 0 denotes repression (inactive).
Correct answer is: Gene expression is active
Q.5 Which type of biosensor converts a biological signal into an electrical signal?
Photonic crystal sensor
Electrochemical impedance sensor
Mechanical strain gauge
Thermal imaging sensor
Explanation - Electrochemical impedance sensors measure changes in impedance caused by biomolecular interactions, converting them into electrical signals.
Correct answer is: Electrochemical impedance sensor
Q.6 What is the main purpose of a Petri net in systems biology?
To model metabolic fluxes quantitatively
To represent concurrent events in biochemical pathways
To design electronic circuits for biosensing
To sequence DNA efficiently
Explanation - Petri nets are graph-based models used to analyze concurrent, discrete events such as enzyme reactions.
Correct answer is: To represent concurrent events in biochemical pathways
Q.7 Which equation is commonly used to describe the kinetics of enzyme-catalyzed reactions?
Michaelis-Menten equation
Nernst equation
Arrhenius equation
Boltzmann distribution
Explanation - The Michaelis-Menten equation relates reaction rate to substrate concentration for simple enzymatic reactions.
Correct answer is: Michaelis-Menten equation
Q.8 What does the term ‘omics’ refer to?
The study of genetic variation in populations
The application of big data in biological sciences
Large-scale studies of a specific type of biomolecules
The use of microelectronic devices in biology
Explanation - Omics disciplines (genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, etc.) focus on high-throughput analyses of biomolecules.
Correct answer is: Large-scale studies of a specific type of biomolecules
Q.9 Which of the following best describes the role of a transcription factor?
It catalyzes metabolic reactions
It transports ions across membranes
It binds DNA to regulate gene expression
It forms the ribosomal structure
Explanation - Transcription factors recognize specific DNA sequences to either promote or inhibit transcription.
Correct answer is: It binds DNA to regulate gene expression
Q.10 In systems biology, what is a 'steady state'?
A condition where all concentrations remain constant over time
A transient phase before equilibrium
A state of maximum entropy production
A point where the system is unstable
Explanation - Steady state means that the rates of change of all species concentrations are zero, leading to constant values.
Correct answer is: A condition where all concentrations remain constant over time
Q.11 Which software is designed for metabolic network reconstruction?
Cytoscape
Flux Balance Analysis (FBA) tool
GROMACS
MATLAB Simulink
Explanation - FBA tools allow prediction of metabolic fluxes in reconstructed stoichiometric models.
Correct answer is: Flux Balance Analysis (FBA) tool
Q.12 What is the main advantage of using a microfluidic chip for biosensing?
Large volume handling
High temperature operation
Rapid reaction kinetics and low sample volume
Direct electrical integration
Explanation - Microfluidics allows precise control of small fluid volumes, leading to faster reactions and reduced reagent usage.
Correct answer is: Rapid reaction kinetics and low sample volume
Q.13 Which of the following describes a 'hidden Markov model' (HMM) in bioinformatics?
A deterministic model for gene expression
A probabilistic model that describes sequences with unobserved states
A graph-based representation of metabolic pathways
A neural network for protein folding
Explanation - HMMs model sequences where the underlying state is hidden, commonly used for gene prediction and sequence alignment.
Correct answer is: A probabilistic model that describes sequences with unobserved states
Q.14 Which electrical engineering concept is used to filter out noise in a biosignal?
Differential amplifier
Low-pass filter
Amplifier saturation
Oscillator circuit
Explanation - Low-pass filters allow low-frequency components (like heartbeats) while attenuating high-frequency noise.
Correct answer is: Low-pass filter
Q.15 What is a 'flux' in the context of a metabolic network?
The rate of change of concentration of a metabolite
The physical flow of ions across a membrane
The speed of an enzyme's catalytic action
The amount of ATP produced per hour
Explanation - In stoichiometric models, flux refers to the reaction rate per unit volume, influencing metabolite levels.
Correct answer is: The rate of change of concentration of a metabolite
Q.16 Which of the following is NOT a typical output of a gene expression profiling experiment?
Fold change values
Gene ontology annotations
Microarray intensity signals
Chromatography retention times
Explanation - Chromatography retention times are associated with metabolomics, not gene expression profiling.
Correct answer is: Chromatography retention times
Q.17 What is the primary function of a 'phosphatase' enzyme?
Add a phosphate group to substrates
Remove a phosphate group from substrates
Synthesize DNA strands
Transport molecules across membranes
Explanation - Phosphatases catalyze dephosphorylation reactions, often turning off signaling cascades.
Correct answer is: Remove a phosphate group from substrates
Q.18 Which modeling approach is best suited for capturing stochastic effects in gene expression?
Deterministic ODEs
Stochastic simulation algorithms (SSA)
Mass-action kinetics
Linear regression
Explanation - SSA, such as Gillespie’s algorithm, models random discrete events in molecular interactions.
Correct answer is: Stochastic simulation algorithms (SSA)
Q.19 Which of the following is a key assumption of the Michaelis-Menten kinetic model?
Enzyme concentration is much greater than substrate concentration
The reaction is at equilibrium
The enzyme is not saturated by substrate
The product inhibits the reaction
Explanation - Michaelis-Menten assumes low substrate levels compared to the enzyme, allowing quasi-steady-state approximation.
Correct answer is: The enzyme is not saturated by substrate
Q.20 Which bioinformatics tool is primarily used for detecting homology between proteins?
BLAST
PhyML
MAFFT
PAML
Explanation - BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) finds local alignments indicating potential homology.
Correct answer is: BLAST
Q.21 What does the term 'signal transduction' refer to?
The process of transmitting electrical signals in neurons
The conversion of one form of biological signal to another
The movement of ions across cell membranes
The synthesis of proteins in ribosomes
Explanation - Signal transduction encompasses pathways converting extracellular stimuli into cellular responses.
Correct answer is: The conversion of one form of biological signal to another
Q.22 Which type of neural network is commonly applied in predicting protein secondary structure?
Convolutional neural network (CNN)
Recurrent neural network (RNN)
Feedforward neural network (FNN)
Autoencoder
Explanation - RNNs capture sequential dependencies in amino acid chains, making them suitable for structure prediction.
Correct answer is: Recurrent neural network (RNN)
Q.23 In a Boolean network, what does the term 'steady state' refer to?
All nodes oscillate between 0 and 1
All nodes reach fixed binary values that do not change over time
The network is inactive
The network exhibits chaotic behavior
Explanation - A steady state in Boolean dynamics is a fixed point where the state vector remains constant.
Correct answer is: All nodes reach fixed binary values that do not change over time
Q.24 What is the main advantage of using a 'microarray' over next-generation sequencing for transcriptome analysis?
Higher dynamic range
Lower cost and faster processing
Detection of novel transcripts
Greater accuracy for low-abundance transcripts
Explanation - Microarrays are cheaper and quicker but lack the sensitivity and discovery power of NGS.
Correct answer is: Lower cost and faster processing
Q.25 Which electrical component is typically used to sample analog biosignals before digitization?
Oscillator
Analog-to-digital converter (ADC)
Transformer
Voltage regulator
Explanation - ADC converts continuous voltage signals into discrete digital values for further processing.
Correct answer is: Analog-to-digital converter (ADC)
Q.26 Which of the following best defines a 'pathway enrichment analysis'?
Identification of overrepresented pathways in a gene list
Measurement of metabolic fluxes in a pathway
Detection of genetic variants in a pathway
Modeling of pathway kinetics
Explanation - Enrichment analysis assesses whether genes from a study are significantly represented in known biological pathways.
Correct answer is: Identification of overrepresented pathways in a gene list
Q.27 Which of these is a common type of noise in electrochemical biosensors?
Johnson–Nyquist noise
Shot noise
1/f noise
All of the above
Explanation - Electrochemical sensors can suffer from multiple noise sources, including thermal, shot, and flicker noise.
Correct answer is: All of the above
Q.28 What does the 'RPKM' metric stand for in RNA-Seq data analysis?
Reads Per Kilobase of transcript, per Million mapped reads
Random Pseudo-kinetic Model
Reverse Phase Kinase Measurement
Residual Protein Kinetic Modeling
Explanation - RPKM normalizes read counts by gene length and sequencing depth, enabling cross-sample comparison.
Correct answer is: Reads Per Kilobase of transcript, per Million mapped reads
Q.29 Which equation describes the relationship between the current and voltage in a diode?
I = I_s (e^(V/V_t) - 1)
V = I*R
I = C dV/dt
V = L dI/dt
Explanation - The Shockley diode equation relates the forward current to the applied voltage across a semiconductor diode.
Correct answer is: I = I_s (e^(V/V_t) - 1)
Q.30 What is the purpose of a 'control loop' in a biosensor system?
To maintain constant temperature
To stabilize the output signal
To power the sensor
To convert analog to digital
Explanation - Control loops adjust system parameters to keep the sensor output within desired limits, improving accuracy.
Correct answer is: To stabilize the output signal
Q.31 Which type of network analysis is most appropriate for studying protein–protein interactions?
Bayesian network
Graph theory (network) analysis
Boolean network
Petri net
Explanation - Protein interactions are represented as edges in a graph, allowing topological metrics like centrality.
Correct answer is: Graph theory (network) analysis
Q.32 Which of the following is a common application of neuromorphic engineering in bioinformatics?
Simulating large-scale neural networks
Accelerating genome assembly
Implementing spike-based pattern recognition for DNA sequences
Modeling metabolic fluxes
Explanation - Neuromorphic chips emulate spiking neurons, useful for fast, low-power pattern detection in sequence data.
Correct answer is: Implementing spike-based pattern recognition for DNA sequences
Q.33 What is the primary role of the 'NF-κB' transcription factor?
DNA replication
Inflammatory response regulation
Protein folding
Cell cycle arrest
Explanation - NF‑κB controls genes involved in immune and inflammatory responses.
Correct answer is: Inflammatory response regulation
Q.34 Which of the following best describes a 'signal-to-noise ratio' (SNR) in a biosensor context?
The ratio of power to bandwidth
The ratio of desired signal amplitude to background noise amplitude
The ratio of input voltage to output voltage
The ratio of sensor size to sample volume
Explanation - SNR quantifies how distinguishable a signal is from noise, affecting detection limits.
Correct answer is: The ratio of desired signal amplitude to background noise amplitude
Q.35 Which computational method is used for predicting protein tertiary structure based on homology?
Ab initio simulation
Homology modeling
Docking
Quantum mechanics
Explanation - Homology modeling builds a 3D structure by aligning a target sequence to a known template.
Correct answer is: Homology modeling
Q.36 In the context of metabolic control analysis, what is a 'control coefficient'?
A measure of the influence of one enzyme on the overall flux
A coefficient in the mass-action law
The rate constant of a reaction
The number of metabolites in a pathway
Explanation - Control coefficients quantify how changes in enzyme activity affect system fluxes or concentrations.
Correct answer is: A measure of the influence of one enzyme on the overall flux
Q.37 Which of these is NOT a feature of a typical microfluidic chip?
Laminar flow control
Large sample volumes
Integrated valves
Parallel processing of multiple assays
Explanation - Microfluidic devices handle micro- to nanoliter volumes; large volumes are incompatible with their scale.
Correct answer is: Large sample volumes
Q.38 What does the term 'differential expression analysis' aim to identify?
Genes that are mutated in cancer
Genes with statistically significant expression changes between conditions
Metabolites that accumulate in cells
Protein structures with altered folding
Explanation - Differential expression compares expression levels across sample groups to find up/down regulated genes.
Correct answer is: Genes with statistically significant expression changes between conditions
Q.39 Which of the following is a common metric used to evaluate clustering of gene expression data?
Silhouette width
R-squared
F1-score
Area under the curve (AUC)
Explanation - Silhouette width measures how similar an object is to its own cluster vs other clusters, used in clustering validation.
Correct answer is: Silhouette width
Q.40 What is the main challenge when integrating high-throughput omics data into a dynamic model?
Data is too small
Inconsistency and noise in measurements
Lack of computational resources
All of the above
Explanation - Omics datasets often contain missing values and technical variability that complicate model calibration.
Correct answer is: Inconsistency and noise in measurements
Q.41 Which of the following describes the 'Hill function' in systems biology?
A model for cooperative binding in ligand-receptor interactions
A type of neural network architecture
An algorithm for phylogenetic tree construction
A method for mass spectrometry data processing
Explanation - The Hill function captures sigmoidal response curves resulting from cooperative binding events.
Correct answer is: A model for cooperative binding in ligand-receptor interactions
Q.42 In digital signal processing of a heart rate monitor, which filter is most effective for removing 50 Hz power-line interference?
Low-pass filter
Band-stop (notch) filter
High-pass filter
All-pass filter
Explanation - A notch filter at 50/60 Hz removes power‑line noise while preserving the physiological signal.
Correct answer is: Band-stop (notch) filter
Q.43 Which of the following is a key advantage of 'deep learning' over traditional machine learning in bioinformatics?
Requires less data for training
Can automatically learn hierarchical feature representations
Always interpretable
Does not need computational resources
Explanation - Deep learning models (CNNs, RNNs) extract multi-level features without manual feature engineering.
Correct answer is: Can automatically learn hierarchical feature representations
Q.44 In a mass spectrometry-based proteomics workflow, what does 'label-free quantification' rely on?
Stable isotope labeling
Peak intensity or spectral counting
Chromatographic retention times
Molecular weight calculations
Explanation - Label-free methods infer relative protein abundance from MS signal intensity or number of spectra.
Correct answer is: Peak intensity or spectral counting
Q.45 Which of the following best characterizes an 'ordinary differential equation' (ODE) model in biology?
It captures discrete time steps
It describes continuous change over time
It only handles stochastic events
It is equivalent to a Boolean model
Explanation - ODEs model rates of change of concentrations as continuous functions of time.
Correct answer is: It describes continuous change over time
Q.46 Which bioinformatics technique is used to predict the 3D structure of a protein when no homologous structure is available?
Homology modeling
Ab initio modeling
Docking
Phylogenetic analysis
Explanation - Ab initio methods predict structures from amino acid sequences without relying on templates.
Correct answer is: Ab initio modeling
Q.47 In a Petri net representation of a metabolic pathway, what does a 'transition' represent?
A metabolite
An enzyme-catalyzed reaction
A gene
A signaling molecule
Explanation - Transitions model reactions that consume and produce tokens (metabolites) in the network.
Correct answer is: An enzyme-catalyzed reaction
Q.48 Which of the following is an example of a 'synthetic biology' application relevant to electrical engineering?
Designing optogenetic circuits that interface with microcontrollers
Developing new antibiotics
Sequencing genomes
Performing phylogenetic analysis
Explanation - Synthetic biology often creates biological circuits that can be controlled electrically or optically.
Correct answer is: Designing optogenetic circuits that interface with microcontrollers
Q.49 What does 'dynamic range' refer to in the context of an electrochemical sensor?
The difference between the highest and lowest measurable concentrations
The maximum power consumption
The frequency range of detectable signals
The number of analytes that can be detected simultaneously
Explanation - Dynamic range indicates the sensor's ability to detect from low to high analyte levels accurately.
Correct answer is: The difference between the highest and lowest measurable concentrations
Q.50 Which of the following is a common approach to reconstruct gene regulatory networks from transcriptomic data?
Correlation analysis
Random forest inference
Phylogenetic reconstruction
Protein docking
Explanation - Machine learning methods like random forests can predict regulatory interactions based on expression patterns.
Correct answer is: Random forest inference
Q.51 Which of these best represents the purpose of a 'sensitivity analysis' in a biological model?
To determine the robustness of the model to parameter changes
To speed up simulation time
To identify the most important genes experimentally
To calibrate sensor hardware
Explanation - Sensitivity analysis quantifies how model outputs respond to variations in input parameters.
Correct answer is: To determine the robustness of the model to parameter changes
Q.52 Which of the following is a key feature of a 'digital twin' in biomedical engineering?
A virtual model that can predict physiological responses
A physical replica of an organ
A database of patient records
An electronic health record system
Explanation - Digital twins simulate biological systems in real time, enabling predictive analytics and personalized medicine.
Correct answer is: A virtual model that can predict physiological responses
Q.53 What is the primary function of a 'pre-amplifier' in an electrophysiology setup?
To amplify the electrical signal from the electrode before digitization
To filter out high-frequency noise
To convert analog to digital
To power the recording system
Explanation - A pre‑amplifier boosts weak biopotential signals, preserving signal integrity before further processing.
Correct answer is: To amplify the electrical signal from the electrode before digitization
Q.54 Which of the following is a characteristic of 'metabolomics' data analysis?
High dimensionality with many metabolites per sample
Requirement of 3D structural models
Use of gene sequencing machines
Focus on protein-protein interactions
Explanation - Metabolomic datasets often contain hundreds to thousands of metabolite features per sample.
Correct answer is: High dimensionality with many metabolites per sample
Q.55 Which of the following statements about 'fluxomics' is true?
It measures the rates of metabolic reactions in vivo
It maps genetic mutations in a population
It predicts protein tertiary structures
It identifies transcription factor binding sites
Explanation - Fluxomics quantifies reaction fluxes, often using isotope labeling to track metabolic pathways.
Correct answer is: It measures the rates of metabolic reactions in vivo
Q.56 Which of the following best describes a 'lab-on-a-chip' system?
A large-scale laboratory setup
A miniaturized device that performs multiple laboratory functions on a single chip
A type of microprocessor for bioinformatics
A data storage platform for sequencing data
Explanation - Lab-on-a-chip integrates sample preparation, reaction, and detection in a compact format.
Correct answer is: A miniaturized device that performs multiple laboratory functions on a single chip
Q.57 Which of the following is a key requirement for effective signal processing in neural decoding?
High sampling frequency
Low computational cost
Large memory footprint
High power consumption
Explanation - Neural signals vary rapidly; adequate sampling ensures accurate reconstruction of spike timings.
Correct answer is: High sampling frequency
Q.58 In the context of machine learning for genomics, what is a 'feature vector'?
A list of gene names
A numerical representation of sequence or expression data
A diagram of a protein structure
A phylogenetic tree
Explanation - Feature vectors encode biological data into numeric values suitable for machine learning algorithms.
Correct answer is: A numerical representation of sequence or expression data
Q.59 Which of the following best defines a 'signal transduction pathway'?
A set of genes that encode proteins
A chain of molecular events that transmit signals from outside the cell to intracellular targets
A network of metabolic reactions
A type of biosensor
Explanation - Signal transduction converts extracellular stimuli into cellular responses via cascades.
Correct answer is: A chain of molecular events that transmit signals from outside the cell to intracellular targets
Q.60 What is the main function of a 'flow cytometer'?
To image cells at high resolution
To measure the physical and chemical characteristics of cells in a fluid stream
To sequence DNA directly
To amplify RNA transcripts
Explanation - Flow cytometers analyze cell properties like size, granularity, and fluorescence on a per-cell basis.
Correct answer is: To measure the physical and chemical characteristics of cells in a fluid stream
Q.61 Which of these is NOT a common type of biological data used in systems biology?
Gene expression profiles
Protein–protein interaction networks
Satellite imagery
Metabolite concentrations
Explanation - Satellite imagery pertains to environmental data, not typical biological datasets used in systems biology.
Correct answer is: Satellite imagery
Q.62 What is the primary goal of a 'model reduction' technique in dynamic modeling?
To increase the complexity of the model
To simplify the model while preserving essential behavior
To add more parameters
To change the units of measurement
Explanation - Model reduction reduces computational cost by eliminating nonessential dynamics.
Correct answer is: To simplify the model while preserving essential behavior
Q.63 Which of the following is a common measure of 'network robustness' in systems biology?
Average path length
Degree distribution
Resilience to node removal
Signal-to-noise ratio
Explanation - Robustness assesses how well a network maintains functionality when nodes (genes/metabolites) are removed.
Correct answer is: Resilience to node removal
Q.64 Which of the following describes the concept of 'gene knockdown'?
Complete removal of a gene
Partial reduction of gene expression using RNA interference
Overexpression of a gene
Insertion of a gene into the genome
Explanation - Gene knockdown reduces, but does not eliminate, the gene's activity, often via siRNA or shRNA.
Correct answer is: Partial reduction of gene expression using RNA interference
Q.65 Which of the following best describes 'stochastic resonance' in biological systems?
The process of random gene mutations
Noise-enhanced signal detection in a nonlinear system
The stochastic nature of metabolic fluxes
Random walk behavior of molecules
Explanation - Stochastic resonance describes how a certain level of noise can improve the detection of weak signals.
Correct answer is: Noise-enhanced signal detection in a nonlinear system
Q.66 What is a 'spectral library' used for in proteomics?
To store protein sequences
To match observed mass spectra to known peptides
To map protein–protein interactions
To store raw sequencing data
Explanation - Spectral libraries contain reference spectra for peptides, aiding identification in LC-MS/MS workflows.
Correct answer is: To match observed mass spectra to known peptides
Q.67 Which of the following is a typical output of a Boolean network simulation?
Time-course of metabolite concentrations
Binary state trajectory of genes over time
3D protein structure
Molecular dynamics trajectory
Explanation - Boolean networks produce discrete on/off state sequences for each node during simulation.
Correct answer is: Binary state trajectory of genes over time
Q.68 Which of the following best describes the purpose of 'signal amplification' in biosensing?
To increase the power consumption
To enhance the detectable signal from low-concentration analytes
To reduce the size of the sensor
To eliminate noise completely
Explanation - Amplification boosts weak biological signals, enabling detection at lower analyte concentrations.
Correct answer is: To enhance the detectable signal from low-concentration analytes
Q.69 Which of the following is a key advantage of using 'cloud computing' for large-scale genomics projects?
Reduced data security
Unlimited storage and computational resources
Slower processing
Limited collaboration
Explanation - Cloud platforms provide scalable storage and high-performance computing for massive datasets.
Correct answer is: Unlimited storage and computational resources
Q.70 In the context of 'omics' data integration, what does 'multi-omics' refer to?
Using multiple types of omics data simultaneously, e.g., genomics, proteomics, metabolomics
Sequencing multiple genomes
Applying two different sequencing technologies
Analyzing the same omics data from multiple labs
Explanation - Multi-omics integrates diverse molecular layers to provide a comprehensive biological view.
Correct answer is: Using multiple types of omics data simultaneously, e.g., genomics, proteomics, metabolomics
Q.71 Which of the following best defines a 'time delay' in a biological signaling pathway?
The latency between stimulus and response due to intermediate steps
The time required to perform a PCR reaction
The duration of cell division
The half-life of a metabolite
Explanation - Time delays account for the time taken by successive biochemical reactions in signaling.
Correct answer is: The latency between stimulus and response due to intermediate steps
Q.72 Which of the following is a commonly used method for clustering gene expression data?
Principal component analysis (PCA)
k-means clustering
BLAST alignment
Phylogenetic tree construction
Explanation - k-means partitions genes into clusters based on similarity in expression profiles.
Correct answer is: k-means clustering
Q.73 In a typical 'microarray' experiment, what is the role of a 'spot'?
A location where a probe sequence is immobilized to hybridize with labeled cDNA
A data point representing gene expression level
A storage compartment for reagents
A feature of the imaging system
Explanation - Each spot corresponds to a specific DNA probe that captures complementary transcripts.
Correct answer is: A location where a probe sequence is immobilized to hybridize with labeled cDNA
Q.74 Which of the following best describes 'biocomputing'?
Using biological systems to perform computational tasks
Computational modeling of biophysical systems
Analyzing biological data with software
All of the above
Explanation - Biocomputing exploits living cells or biomolecules as computing substrates.
Correct answer is: Using biological systems to perform computational tasks
Q.75 What is the main difference between 'in silico' and 'in vivo' experiments?
In silico uses computer simulations; in vivo uses living organisms
In silico is more expensive
In vivo uses computer simulations
In vivo is only theoretical
Explanation - In silico refers to computational modeling; in vivo refers to experiments conducted in living systems.
Correct answer is: In silico uses computer simulations; in vivo uses living organisms
Q.76 Which of the following is a common feature of 'single-cell RNA sequencing' (scRNA-seq)?
Bulk measurement of gene expression
High-throughput measurement of gene expression at the individual cell level
Sequencing of genomic DNA
Protein quantification
Explanation - scRNA‑seq captures transcriptomes of thousands of individual cells simultaneously.
Correct answer is: High-throughput measurement of gene expression at the individual cell level
Q.77 What does 'flux balance analysis' (FBA) assume about a metabolic network?
It operates far from equilibrium
It is at a steady state with no net accumulation of metabolites
All reactions are reversible
Metabolic fluxes are random
Explanation - FBA uses stoichiometric constraints to find flux distributions that satisfy mass balance.
Correct answer is: It is at a steady state with no net accumulation of metabolites
Q.78 Which of the following best characterizes 'digital signal processing' (DSP) in biosensing?
Analog filtering only
Converting analog signals to digital and applying algorithms for analysis
Manual inspection of raw data
Storing data on magnetic disks
Explanation - DSP involves digitizing signals and performing computational operations to extract information.
Correct answer is: Converting analog signals to digital and applying algorithms for analysis
Q.79 Which of the following is a primary challenge in 'systems biology' modeling?
Obtaining accurate kinetic parameters for all reactions
Limited availability of sensors
High computational cost
All of the above
Explanation - Data scarcity, measurement noise, and computational demands all hinder accurate modeling.
Correct answer is: All of the above
Q.80 Which of the following best defines 'electrochemical impedance spectroscopy' (EIS)?
A technique to measure changes in impedance across a range of frequencies
A method for DNA sequencing
An imaging modality for brain activity
A type of mass spectrometry
Explanation - EIS probes the dynamic response of a sensor to alternating current over frequency sweeps.
Correct answer is: A technique to measure changes in impedance across a range of frequencies
Q.81 In machine learning for genomics, what is a 'kernel function' used for in support vector machines (SVMs)?
To map input data into a higher-dimensional space for linear separability
To store training data
To accelerate computation
To visualize gene expression
Explanation - Kernel functions compute inner products in transformed spaces, enabling non-linear classification.
Correct answer is: To map input data into a higher-dimensional space for linear separability
Q.82 Which of the following best describes 'mRNA splicing' in eukaryotic gene expression?
The process of adding a cap to the 5’ end of RNA
The removal of introns from pre-mRNA to produce mature mRNA
The synthesis of DNA from RNA
The degradation of mRNA
Explanation - Splicing removes non-coding sequences, joining exons to form functional transcripts.
Correct answer is: The removal of introns from pre-mRNA to produce mature mRNA
Q.83 What is the main purpose of 'time-series analysis' in gene expression studies?
To identify genes with constant expression
To detect dynamic patterns and regulatory relationships over time
To measure protein folding rates
To analyze genomic sequences
Explanation - Time-series data reveal how gene expression changes temporally, enabling inference of regulatory networks.
Correct answer is: To detect dynamic patterns and regulatory relationships over time
Q.84 Which of the following is a hallmark of a 'stable fixed point' in an ODE model?
Small perturbations grow over time
System returns to the point after perturbations
The system oscillates indefinitely
The point is unreachable
Explanation - A stable fixed point attracts trajectories, indicating robustness to perturbations.
Correct answer is: System returns to the point after perturbations
Q.85 What is the purpose of a 'broad-spectrum antibiotic' in a biological experiment?
To selectively target a single species
To inhibit or kill a wide range of bacterial species
To promote bacterial growth
To act as a nutrient
Explanation - Broad-spectrum antibiotics affect multiple bacterial taxa, useful for sterilization.
Correct answer is: To inhibit or kill a wide range of bacterial species
Q.86 Which of the following is a key benefit of using 'open-source' bioinformatics software?
Proprietary licensing costs
Community-driven improvements and transparency
Limited documentation
Restricted data sharing
Explanation - Open-source code allows modification, peer review, and broad accessibility.
Correct answer is: Community-driven improvements and transparency
Q.87 Which of the following best describes the 'steady-state assumption' in enzyme kinetics?
The concentration of enzyme-substrate complex changes rapidly compared to substrate and product
The reaction rate is zero
The reaction is reversible
The substrate concentration is infinite
Explanation - The assumption leads to a quasi-steady-state where d[ES]/dt ≈ 0 for deriving the Michaelis-Menten equation.
Correct answer is: The concentration of enzyme-substrate complex changes rapidly compared to substrate and product
Q.88 Which of the following best explains a 'false positive' in a diagnostic test?
The test incorrectly indicates presence of the disease
The test incorrectly indicates absence of the disease
The test provides no result
The test is accurate
Explanation - A false positive is a positive result when the condition is actually absent.
Correct answer is: The test incorrectly indicates presence of the disease
Q.89 Which of the following is a common type of 'signal transduction' in cells?
G-protein-coupled receptor pathways
Electrical conduction in neurons only
Mechanical vibrations in the ear only
None of the above
Explanation - GPCRs transmit extracellular signals to intracellular effectors via G proteins.
Correct answer is: G-protein-coupled receptor pathways
Q.90 What does the 'limit of detection' (LOD) of a biosensor indicate?
The lowest concentration that can be measured with acceptable precision
The highest concentration that can be measured
The signal strength at saturation
The time required to measure a sample
Explanation - LOD is the minimal detectable analyte concentration above the noise floor.
Correct answer is: The lowest concentration that can be measured with acceptable precision
Q.91 Which of the following best characterizes a 'feed-forward loop' in a gene regulatory network?
A pathway where output feeds back to input
A motif where a transcription factor regulates a second factor and both regulate a target
A loop that eliminates feedback
An irreversible cycle
Explanation - Feed-forward loops create regulatory delays and filtering of signals.
Correct answer is: A motif where a transcription factor regulates a second factor and both regulate a target
Q.92 What is a 'control circuit' in the context of a biosensing device?
A circuit that maintains a desired sensor output
A circuit that amplifies the signal without feedback
A circuit that only measures temperature
A circuit that is not needed
Explanation - Control circuits adjust parameters to keep sensor performance within specifications.
Correct answer is: A circuit that maintains a desired sensor output
Q.93 Which of the following best describes an 'integrated circuit' (IC) used in biomedical devices?
A single component device
A chip containing multiple electronic components in a compact form
A mechanical assembly
A type of polymer gel
Explanation - ICs consolidate transistors, resistors, and capacitors on a single substrate for compact biosensors.
Correct answer is: A chip containing multiple electronic components in a compact form
Q.94 Which of the following is a typical application of 'mass spectrometry imaging' (MSI) in biology?
Visualizing protein distributions across tissue sections
Sequencing DNA strands directly
Measuring electrical potentials in neurons
Detecting airborne pathogens
Explanation - MSI maps the spatial distribution of molecules in biological tissues.
Correct answer is: Visualizing protein distributions across tissue sections
Q.95 In a Boolean network model, what is a 'bifurcation'?
A change in the number of steady states as a parameter varies
A split in a DNA strand
A type of noise
A sensor failure mode
Explanation - Bifurcations indicate qualitative changes in system dynamics due to parameter shifts.
Correct answer is: A change in the number of steady states as a parameter varies
Q.96 Which of the following is an example of a 'biosensor' that uses a biological recognition element?
A pH meter with a glass electrode
An antibody-based electrochemical sensor
A thermocouple
A mechanical pressure sensor
Explanation - Biosensors incorporate living or biologically derived components (e.g., antibodies) to detect analytes.
Correct answer is: An antibody-based electrochemical sensor
Q.97 What does the term 'differential expression threshold' refer to in RNA‑seq analysis?
The maximum read depth allowed
The fold change and p-value cutoffs for calling a gene differentially expressed
The number of samples required
The sequencing error rate
Explanation - Thresholds determine which genes are considered significantly up or down regulated.
Correct answer is: The fold change and p-value cutoffs for calling a gene differentially expressed
Q.98 Which of the following best describes the 'Fourier transform' used in signal processing?
A method to convert a time-domain signal into its frequency components
A technique to amplify signals
A way to store data
A type of sensor
Explanation - Fourier transform decomposes signals into constituent frequencies for analysis.
Correct answer is: A method to convert a time-domain signal into its frequency components
Q.99 Which of the following is a key benefit of using 'electrochemical sensors' over optical sensors in point-of-care diagnostics?
Higher cost
Lower sensitivity
Portability and low power consumption
Requirement for large sample volumes
Explanation - Electrochemical sensors are compact, cheap, and energy-efficient, making them suitable for POC.
Correct answer is: Portability and low power consumption
Q.100 Which of the following is NOT a typical component of a microfluidic device?
Microchannels
Valves
Large external tanks
Pumps
Explanation - Microfluidics focuses on small-scale fluid handling; large tanks are inconsistent with its design.
Correct answer is: Large external tanks
Q.101 What is the purpose of a 'pump' in a lab-on-a-chip system?
To generate electricity
To move fluids through microchannels
To store data
To measure pressure
Explanation - Pumps drive fluid flow, enabling reagent mixing, washing, and reaction steps.
Correct answer is: To move fluids through microchannels
Q.102 In mass spectrometry, what is the function of a 'quadrupole mass filter'?
To separate ions based on mass-to-charge ratio
To amplify signals
To ionize molecules
To capture photons
Explanation - Quadrupoles filter ions by oscillating voltages, allowing only desired m/z ratios to pass.
Correct answer is: To separate ions based on mass-to-charge ratio
Q.103 Which of the following best characterizes a 'differential equation' used in modeling a biological oscillator?
It describes a static relationship between variables
It includes derivatives to capture dynamic changes over time
It is purely algebraic
It ignores time dependence
Explanation - Differential equations model how concentrations evolve over time, essential for oscillatory behavior.
Correct answer is: It includes derivatives to capture dynamic changes over time
Q.104 Which of the following best describes a 'signal-to-noise ratio' (SNR) threshold in a biosensor?
The minimum SNR needed for reliable detection
The maximum allowable noise
The ratio of sensor size to sample volume
The power consumption of the sensor
Explanation - An SNR threshold ensures that signals are distinguishable from background noise.
Correct answer is: The minimum SNR needed for reliable detection
Q.105 Which of the following is a common step in 'variant calling' from sequencing data?
Align reads to a reference genome
Normalize signal intensities
Generate phylogenetic trees
Construct a protein structure model
Explanation - Variant calling requires alignment to identify differences between the sample and reference.
Correct answer is: Align reads to a reference genome
Q.106 In systems biology, what is a 'steady-state assumption' in flux balance analysis (FBA)?
All metabolite concentrations change rapidly
No net accumulation of metabolites over time
Reactions are reversible
The system is far from equilibrium
Explanation - FBA assumes mass balance with zero accumulation to solve for flux distributions.
Correct answer is: No net accumulation of metabolites over time
Q.107 Which of the following is an advantage of using 'in vitro' systems for studying signaling pathways?
They perfectly replicate in vivo complexity
They allow controlled manipulation of specific components
They are more expensive than in vivo
They cannot be used for drug testing
Explanation - In vitro systems provide a simplified environment to dissect individual pathway steps.
Correct answer is: They allow controlled manipulation of specific components
Q.108 Which of the following is an example of a 'neuroprosthetic' device?
An insulin pump
A cochlear implant
A blood pressure cuff
An EEG cap
Explanation - Neuroprosthetics restore or replace neural function, such as cochlear implants for hearing loss.
Correct answer is: A cochlear implant
Q.109 What does the 'p-value' indicate in differential gene expression analysis?
The probability that the observed difference is due to random chance
The fold change between conditions
The number of reads mapped
The sequencing quality score
Explanation - P-values assess statistical significance; lower values suggest the difference is unlikely by chance.
Correct answer is: The probability that the observed difference is due to random chance
Q.110 Which of the following is a typical application of 'deep learning' in bioinformatics?
Predicting protein subcellular localization
Classifying medical images
Both a and b
None of the above
Explanation - Deep neural networks excel at pattern recognition in sequences and images within biology.
Correct answer is: Both a and b
Q.111 Which of the following best describes 'single-molecule fluorescence' techniques?
Observing multiple molecules simultaneously
Observing fluorescence from individual biomolecules
Using only bulk fluorescence
Measuring electrical currents only
Explanation - Single-molecule methods detect signals from individual molecules, revealing heterogeneity.
Correct answer is: Observing fluorescence from individual biomolecules
Q.112 In a microfluidic biosensor, what is the purpose of a 'microchamber'?
To contain a large volume of fluid
To isolate small sample volumes for reaction
To store data
To generate heat
Explanation - Microchambers hold tiny volumes for reactions, enabling rapid, low-volume assays.
Correct answer is: To isolate small sample volumes for reaction
Q.113 Which of the following best explains a 'feed-back loop' in gene regulation?
A transcription factor activates a gene that encodes the same transcription factor
A pathway with no regulatory elements
An irreversible reaction cycle
A loop that cannot be modeled
Explanation - Feedback loops control the levels of regulators, maintaining homeostasis.
Correct answer is: A transcription factor activates a gene that encodes the same transcription factor
Q.114 What is 'phosphoproteomics'?
The study of protein phosphorylation states via mass spectrometry
The sequencing of DNA phosphates
The measurement of phospholipid levels
The analysis of mitochondrial DNA
Explanation - Phosphoproteomics identifies and quantifies phosphorylated peptides to study signaling.
Correct answer is: The study of protein phosphorylation states via mass spectrometry
Q.115 Which of the following best describes the 'Nyquist theorem' in digital signal acquisition?
Sampling at twice the maximum frequency to avoid aliasing
Sampling at half the maximum frequency
Sampling at any frequency is acceptable
Sampling only at the highest frequency possible
Explanation - Nyquist theorem states that the sampling frequency must be at least twice the highest signal frequency.
Correct answer is: Sampling at twice the maximum frequency to avoid aliasing
Q.116 What is a key advantage of using 'CRISPR-Cas9' for gene knockouts in a biological system?
High specificity and efficiency
Requires complex viral vectors
Slow editing process
Limited to bacterial cells
Explanation - CRISPR-Cas9 allows precise genome editing with minimal off-target effects.
Correct answer is: High specificity and efficiency
Q.117 Which of the following best describes an 'electrochemical impedance' measurement?
The resistance of a sensor to current flow at a single frequency
The change in impedance across a range of frequencies
The electrical potential difference across a membrane
The voltage output of an amplifier
Explanation - EIS scans across frequencies to probe sensor responses to analyte binding.
Correct answer is: The change in impedance across a range of frequencies
Q.118 Which of the following is NOT a typical feature of a 'digital twin' in biomedical engineering?
Real-time simulation of physiological processes
Predictive analytics for patient outcomes
Physical replication of the device only
Integration with sensor data streams
Explanation - Digital twins are virtual models; they do not require a physical replica.
Correct answer is: Physical replication of the device only
Q.119 In a 'lab-on-a-chip', which of the following steps can be integrated?
Sample preparation, separation, detection, and data analysis
Only sample preparation
Only detection
Only data analysis
Explanation - LoC devices integrate all lab steps onto a single chip for rapid assays.
Correct answer is: Sample preparation, separation, detection, and data analysis
Q.120 Which of the following best explains the term 'biosensor sensitivity'?
The ability of a sensor to produce a large signal
The minimal change in analyte concentration that results in a detectable signal change
The speed of signal generation
The power consumption of the sensor
Explanation - Sensitivity quantifies how small a concentration change can be detected by the sensor.
Correct answer is: The minimal change in analyte concentration that results in a detectable signal change
Q.121 Which of the following best describes the 'Hill equation' in ligand-receptor binding?
A linear relationship between ligand concentration and response
A sigmoidal function describing cooperativity
A quadratic equation for binding kinetics
An exponential decay model
Explanation - The Hill equation captures cooperative binding with a sigmoidal dose–response curve.
Correct answer is: A sigmoidal function describing cooperativity
Q.122 In the context of gene expression, what does 'fold change' measure?
The absolute difference in expression levels
The ratio of expression levels between two conditions
The number of reads per gene
The statistical significance
Explanation - Fold change quantifies how many times expression has increased or decreased.
Correct answer is: The ratio of expression levels between two conditions
Q.123 Which of the following is a common technique for measuring protein–protein interactions?
Yeast two-hybrid assay
qPCR
Western blot
Mass spectrometry only
Explanation - Yeast two-hybrid detects interactions through reporter gene activation in yeast.
Correct answer is: Yeast two-hybrid assay
Q.124 Which of the following best describes 'synthetic biology' applications in biosensing?
Engineering biological circuits that produce measurable electrical outputs
Using natural biosensors only
Studying natural signal transduction without modification
All of the above
Explanation - Synthetic biology can design biological elements that generate signals interpretable by electronics.
Correct answer is: Engineering biological circuits that produce measurable electrical outputs
Q.125 What does a 'digital filter' do in the processing of electrophysiological signals?
Adds noise to the signal
Removes unwanted frequency components and enhances desired signals
Amplifies the signal
Records the raw signal directly
Explanation - Digital filters shape the frequency spectrum, improving signal quality.
Correct answer is: Removes unwanted frequency components and enhances desired signals
Q.126 Which of the following best explains the concept of 'homeostasis' in biological systems?
Maintaining constant internal conditions despite external changes
Rapidly changing internal conditions
Uncontrolled growth of cells
A static state with no regulation
Explanation - Homeostasis ensures stability of internal environment, essential for survival.
Correct answer is: Maintaining constant internal conditions despite external changes
Q.127 In 'fluxomics', what technique is often used to trace metabolic pathways?
Stable isotope labeling (e.g., ^13C)
DNA sequencing
Western blotting
PCR amplification
Explanation - Isotopic tracers allow mapping of fluxes through metabolic pathways via mass spectrometry.
Correct answer is: Stable isotope labeling (e.g., ^13C)
Q.128 Which of the following best describes an 'electrochemical immunosensor'?
A sensor that uses antibodies to capture antigens and transduces the binding event electrically
A sensor that uses DNA for detection
A sensor that measures temperature
A sensor that uses light only
Explanation - Immunosensors combine specific antibody recognition with electrochemical readout.
Correct answer is: A sensor that uses antibodies to capture antigens and transduces the binding event electrically
Q.129 Which of the following best explains 'metabolite profiling' in systems biology?
Sequencing genes
Quantifying metabolites across different conditions
Imaging cells
Detecting viral particles
Explanation - Metabolite profiling measures small-molecule levels to infer metabolic states.
Correct answer is: Quantifying metabolites across different conditions
Q.130 What does a 'high-throughput' experiment refer to?
Processing a small number of samples slowly
Processing many samples or data points rapidly
Using high-power equipment
Storing large amounts of data
Explanation - High-throughput methods allow parallel processing, increasing data acquisition speed.
Correct answer is: Processing many samples or data points rapidly
Q.131 Which of the following is a typical application of 'machine learning' in genomics?
Predicting gene function from sequence
Detecting protein-protein interactions
Both a and b
None of the above
Explanation - ML can be used for sequence-based annotation and interaction prediction.
Correct answer is: Both a and b
Q.132 What is a 'digital twin' used for in personalized medicine?
Predicting individual drug responses
Manufacturing drugs only
Storing patient data
None of the above
Explanation - Digital twins simulate patient-specific biology to optimize therapy.
Correct answer is: Predicting individual drug responses
Q.133 Which of the following best describes the 'Hill coefficient' in a biochemical context?
The maximum rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction
The slope of the saturation curve indicating cooperativity
The substrate concentration at half-maximum velocity
The binding energy of a ligand
Explanation - The Hill coefficient quantifies how sharply the response changes with concentration.
Correct answer is: The slope of the saturation curve indicating cooperativity
Q.134 Which of the following best characterizes a 'feed-forward loop' in gene regulation?
A motif where a transcription factor regulates a second factor and both regulate a target gene
A negative feedback mechanism
A linear cascade with no cross-regulation
An irreversible pathway
Explanation - Feed-forward loops allow for signal filtering and time-dependent responses.
Correct answer is: A motif where a transcription factor regulates a second factor and both regulate a target gene
Q.135 What is the main purpose of 'data normalization' in RNA‑seq analysis?
To remove batch effects and make samples comparable
To align sequences to a reference
To assemble genomes
To perform variant calling
Explanation - Normalization corrects for library size and other biases, enabling accurate differential expression.
Correct answer is: To remove batch effects and make samples comparable
Q.136 Which of the following best describes the 'Fourier transform' in signal analysis?
Converts time-domain signals to frequency-domain representation
Amplifies the signal
Records raw data
Detects noise only
Explanation - Fourier transform decomposes signals into constituent frequencies for analysis.
Correct answer is: Converts time-domain signals to frequency-domain representation
Q.137 Which of the following is a common feature of 'lab-on-a-chip' platforms?
Large fluid volumes
Microfluidic channels for small-volume handling
High power consumption
Bulk equipment
Explanation - LoC devices are characterized by micro-scale fluid control for rapid assays.
Correct answer is: Microfluidic channels for small-volume handling